Range of motion declines unevenly with age but stays trainable; balance and strength work, not stretching alone, have the evidence for keeping older adults on their feet
Interpretation
A cross-sectional Flexitest dataset of 6,000 people (3,835 men, 2,165 women) shows flexibility falling about 0.8% a year in men and 0.6% in women, fastest at the shoulders and trunk. A 77-study meta-analysis (3,870 people, mean age 27) found stretching raises ROM with no significant age effect, and an 11-RCT review (452 people) found strength training improves ROM as much as stretching. A 22-study review in over-65s found conflicting links between flexibility training and function. A Cochrane review of 108 RCTs (23,407 people, mean age 76, 77% women) found balance and functional exercise cut falls rate (RaR 0.76) and found no flexibility-only trials. Consistent direction but large population gap: young people for stretching, sedentary older adults for falls, no masters athletes.
Practical implication
Masters triathletes can keep or regain range, especially at the shoulders and hips, but limited time is better spent mainly on balance and full-range strength work, with targeted stretching for the joints the sport needs. Extrapolated from non-athletes; untested for triathlon performance or injury.
Sources
6 sources, independently verified.
Overall flexibility (Flexindex, 20 passive movements) declined with age, about 0.8% a year in men and 0.6% in women; women more flexible at every age. Loss was joint-specific: shoulder and trunk shares fell most, elbow and knee best preserved; men's shoulder share fell from 13.9% at 28 to 5.2% at 85. Age explained only ~50–60% of variance. Cross-sectional, mostly white upper-SES sample, no activity data; some internal inconsistencies in reported numbers.
Chronic stretch training produced a moderate ROM increase vs controls (ES −1.002, 95% CI −1.165 to −0.840; I² 75%). Static and PNF stretching beat ballistic/dynamic (ES ≈ 1.01 and 1.28 vs 0.55). Females gained more than males (ES ≈ 1.56 vs 0.88). Age (meta-regression p = 0.40), training status (p = 0.74), weekly frequency (p = 0.42) and total stretch duration (p = 0.73) were not significant moderators. By muscle: hamstrings ES ≈ 1.16, hip flexors ≈ 1.13, triceps surae ≈ 0.70. Substantial heterogeneity and signs of reporting bias; participants mostly young.
Flexibility interventions may improve range of motion, but evidence linking them to functional outcomes or daily functioning is conflicting; protocols, body parts and measures too varied for firm recommendations.
Chronic static stretching gave trivial-to-small gains in strength (SMD 0.21) and power (SMD 0.19) and a moderate-to-large flexibility gain (SMD 0.96). Sedentary participants gained more strength (SMD 0.58) than recreationally active (0.16); older mean age and more female participants predicted larger strength gains. Passive stretching beat active for flexibility.
No difference between strength training and stretching for ROM gains (ES −0.22, 95% CI −0.55 to 0.12, p = 0.206); subgroups by risk of bias, active vs passive ROM and joint showed no differences. Studies highly heterogeneous.
Exercise reduced the rate of falls by 23% (RaR 0.77, 95% CI 0.71–0.83; high certainty). Balance and functional exercise RaR 0.76 (high certainty); multiple types, usually balance/functional plus resistance, RaR 0.66 (moderate); tai chi RaR 0.81 (low). No trials compared flexibility-only or endurance exercise with control.